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CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST delivered the opinion of the
Court.
We granted certiorari in this case to decide whether “the
University of Michigan’s use of racial preferences in un-
dergraduate
admissions violate[s] the Equal Protection
Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 (42 U. S. C. § 2000d), or 42 U. S. C.
§1981.” Brief for Petitioners i. Because we find that the
manner in which the University considers the race of
applicants in its undergraduate admissions guidelines
violates these constitutional and statutory provisions, we
reverse that portion of the District Court’s decision up-
holding
the guidelines.
I
A
Petitioners Jennifer Gratz and Patrick Hamacher both
applied for admission to the University of Michigan’s
(University) College of Literature, Science, and the Arts
(LSA) as residents of the State of Michigan. Both peti-
tioners
are Caucasian. Gratz, who applied for admission
for the fall of 1995, was notified in January of that year
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GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
that a final decision regarding her admission had been
delayed until April. This delay was based upon the Uni-
versity’s
determination that, although Gratz was “‘well
qualified,’ ” she was “ ‘less competitive than the students
who ha[d] been admitted on first review.’” App. to Pet. for
Cert. 109a. Gratz was notified in April that the LSA was
unable to offer her admission. She enrolled in the Univer-
sity
of Michigan at Dearborn, from which she graduated in
the spring of 1999.
Hamacher applied for admission to the LSA for the fall
of 1997. A final decision as to his application was also
postponed because, though his “‘academic credentials
[were] in the qualified range, they [were] not at the level
needed for first review admission.’ ” Ibid. Hamacher’s
application was subsequently denied in April 1997, and he
enrolled at Michigan State University.1
In October 1997, Gratz and Hamacher filed a lawsuit in
the United States District Court for the Eastern District of
Michigan against the University of Michigan, the LSA,2
James Duderstadt, and Lee Bollinger.3 Petitioners’ com-
plaint
was a class-action suit alleging “violations and
threatened violations of the rights of the plaintiffs and the
class they represent to equal protection of the laws under
the Fourteenth Amendment … , and for racial discrimi-
___________________
1/
Although Hamacher indicated that he “intend[ed] to apply to trans-
fer
if the [LSA’s] discriminatory admissions system [is] eliminated,” he
has since graduated from Michigan State University. App. 34.
2/
The University of Michigan Board of Regents was subsequently
named as the proper defendant in place of the University and the LSA.
See id., at 17.
3/
Duderstadt was the president of the University during the time that
Gratz’s application was under consideration. He has been sued in his
individual capacity. Bollinger was the president of the University
when Hamacher applied for admission. He was originally sued in both
his individual and official capacities, but he is no longer the president
of the University. Id., at 35.
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Opinion of the Court
nation in violation of 42 U. S. C. §§1981, 1983, and 2000d
et seq.” App. 33. Petitioners sought, inter alia, compensa-
tory
and punitive damages for past violations, declaratory
relief finding that respondents violated petitioners’ “rights
to nondiscriminatory treatment,” an injunction prohibiting
respondents from “continuing to discriminate on the basis
of race in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment,” and an
order requiring the LSA to offer Hamacher admission as a
transfer student.4 Id., at 40.
The District Court granted petitioners’ motion for class
certification after determining that a class action was
appropriate pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure
23(b)(2). The certified class consisted of “those individuals
who applied for and were not granted admission to the
College of Literature, Science and the Arts of the Univer-
sity
of Michigan for all academic years from 1995 forward
and who are members of those racial or ethnic groups,
including Caucasian, that defendants treated less favora-
bly
on the basis of race in considering their application for
admission.” App. 70-71. And Hamacher, whose claim the
District Court found to challenge a “‘practice of racial
discrimination pervasively applied on a classwide basis,’ ”
was designated as the class representative. Id., at 67, 70.
The court also granted petitioners’ motion to bifurcate the
proceedings into a liability and damages phase. Id., at 71.
The liability phase was to determine “whether [respon-
dents’]
use of race as a factor in admissions decisions
violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth
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4/
group of African-American and Latino students who applied for,
or intended to apply for, admission to the University, as well as the
Citizens for Affirmative Action’s Preservation, a nonprofit organization
in Michigan, sought to intervene pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil
Procedure 24. See App. 13-14. The District Court originally denied
this request, see id., at 14-15, but the Sixth Circuit reversed that
decision. See Gratz v. Bollinger, 188 F. 3d 394 (1999).
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GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
Amendment to the Constitution.” Id., at 70.5
B
The University has changed its admissions guidelines a
number of times during the period relevant to this litiga-
tion,
and we summarize the most significant of these
changes briefly. The University’s Office of Undergraduate
Admissions (OUA) oversees the LSA admissions process.6
In order to promote consistency in the review of the large
number of applications received, the OUA uses written
guidelines for each academic year. Admissions counselors
make admissions decisions in accordance with these
guidelines.
OUA considers a number of factors in making admis-
sions
decisions, including high school grades, standardized
test scores, high school quality, curriculum strength,
geography, alumni relationships, and leadership. OUA
also considers race. During all periods relevant to this
litigation, the University has considered African-
Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans to be “un-
derrepresented
minorities,” and it is undisputed that the
University admits “virtually every qualified … applicant”
from these groups. App. to Pet. for Cert. 111a.
During 1995 and 1996, OUA counselors evaluated appli-
cations
according to grade point average combined with
what were referred to as the “SCUGA” factors. These
factors included the quality of an applicant’s high school
(S), the strength of an applicant’s high school curriculum
(C), an applicant’s unusual circumstances (U), an appli-
___________________
5/
The District Court decided also to consider petitioners’ request for
injunctive and declaratory relief during the liability phase of the
proceedings. App. 71.
6/
Our description is taken, in large part, from the “Joint Proposed
Summary of Undisputed Facts Regarding Admissions Process” filed by
the parties in the District Court. App. to Pet. for Cert. 108a-117a.
5
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Opinion of the Court
cant’s geographical residence (G), and an applicant’s
alumni relationships (A). After these scores were com-
bined
to produce an applicant’s “GPA 2” score, the re-
viewing
admissions counselors referenced a set of “Guide-
lines”
tables, which listed GPA 2 ranges on the vertical
axis, and American College Test/Scholastic Aptitude Test
(ACT/SAT) scores on the horizontal axis. Each table was
divided into cells that included one or more courses of
action to be taken, including admit, reject, delay for addi-
tional
information, or postpone for reconsideration.
In both years, applicants with the same GPA 2 score
and ACT/SAT score were subject to different admissions
outcomes based upon their racial or ethnic status.7 For
example, as a Caucasian in-state applicant, Gratz’s GPA 2
score and ACT score placed her within a cell calling for a
postponed decision on her application. An in-state or out-
of-state minority applicant with Gratz’s scores would have
fallen within a cell calling for admission.
In 1997, the University modified its admissions proce-
dure.
Specifically, the formula for calculating an appli-
cant’s
GPA 2 score was restructured to include additional
point values under the “U” category in the SCUGA factors.
Under this new system, applicants could receive points for
underrepresented minority status, socioeconomic disad-
vantage,
or attendance at a high school with a predomi-
nantly
underrepresented minority population, or under-
representation
in the unit to which the student was
___________________
7/
In 1995, counselors used four such tables for different groups of
applicants: (1) in-state, nonminority applicants; (2) out-of-state, non-
minority
applicants; (3) in-state, minority applicants; and (4) out-of-
state,
minority applicants. In 1996, only two tables were used, one for
in-state applicants and one for out-of-state applicants. But each cell on
these two tables contained separate courses of action for minority
applicants and nonminority applicants whose GPA 2 scores and
ACT/SAT scores placed them in that cell.
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GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
applying (for example, men who sought to pursue a career
in nursing). Under the 1997 procedures, Hamacher’s
GPA 2 score and ACT score placed him in a cell on the in-
state
applicant table calling for postponement of a final
admissions decision. An underrepresented minority appli-
cant
placed in the same cell would generally have been
admitted.
Beginning with the 1998 academic year, the OUA dis-
pensed
with the Guidelines tables and the SCUGA point
system in favor of a “selection index,” on which an appli-
cant
could score a maximum of 150 points. This index was
divided linearly into ranges generally calling for admis-
sions
dispositions as follows: 100-150 (admit); 95-99
(admit or postpone); 90-94 (postpone or admit); 75-89
(delay or postpone); 74 and below (delay or reject).
Each application received points based on high school
grade point average, standardized test scores, academic
quality of an applicant’s high school, strength or weakness
of high school curriculum, in-state residency, alumni
relationship, personal essay, and personal achievement or
leadership. Of particular significance here, under a “mis-
cellaneous”
category, an applicant was entitled to 20
points based upon his or her membership in an underrep-
resented
racial or ethnic minority group. The University
explained that the “‘development of the selection index for
admissions in 1998 changed only the mechanics, not the
substance of how race and ethnicity were considered in
admissions.’ ” App. to Pet. for Cert. 116a.
In all application years from 1995 to 1998, the guide-
lines
provided that qualified applicants from underrepre-
sented
minority groups be admitted as soon as possible in
light of the University’s belief that such applicants were
more likely to enroll if promptly notified of their admis-
sion.
Also from 1995 through 1998, the University care-
fully
managed its rolling admissions system to permit
consideration of certain applications submitted later in the
7
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Opinion of the Court
academic year through the use of “protected seats.” Spe-
cific
groups—including athletes, foreign students, ROTC
candidates, and underrepresented minorities—were “pro-
tected
categories” eligible for these seats. A committee
called the Enrollment Working Group (EWG) projected
how many applicants from each of these protected catego-
ries
the University was likely to receive after a given date
and then paced admissions decisions to permit full consid-
eration
of expected applications from these groups. If this
space was not filled by qualified candidates from the
designated groups toward the end of the admissions sea-
son,
it was then used to admit qualified candidates re-
maining
in the applicant pool, including those on the
waiting list.
During 1999 and 2000, the OUA used the selection
index, under which every applicant from an underrepre-
sented
racial or ethnic minority group was awarded 20
points. Starting in 1999, however, the University estab-
lished
an Admissions Review Committee (ARC), to provide
an additional level of consideration for some applications.
Under the new system, counselors may, in their discretion,
“flag” an application for the ARC to review after determining
that the applicant (1) is academically prepared to
succeed at the University,8 (2) has achieved a minimum
selection index score, and (3) possesses a quality or char-
acteristic
important to the University’s composition of its
freshman class, such as high class rank, unique life expe-
riences,
challenges, circumstances, interests or talents,
socioeconomic disadvantage, and underrepresented race,
ethnicity, or geography. After reviewing “flagged” applications,
the ARC determines whether to admit, defer, or
___________________
1/
LSA applicants who are Michigan residents must accumulate 80
points from the selection index criteria to be flagged, while out-of-state
applicants need to accumulate 75 points to be eligible for such consid-
eration.
See App. 257.
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GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
deny each applicant.
C
The parties filed cross-motions for summary judgment
with respect to liability. Petitioners asserted that the
LSA’s use of race as a factor in admissions violates Title
VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 78 Stat. 252, 42 U. S. C.
§2000d, and the Equal Protection Clause of the Four-
teenth
Amendment. Respondents relied on Justice Pow-
ell’s
opinion in Regents of Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U. S.
265 (1978), to respond to petitioners’ arguments. As dis-
cussed
in greater detail in the Court’s opinion in Grutter v.
Bollinger, post, at 10-13, Justice Powell, in Bakke, ex-
pressed
the view that the consideration of race as a factor
in admissions might in some cases serve a compelling
government interest. See 438 U. S., at 317. Respondents
contended that the LSA has just such an interest in the
educational benefits that result from having a racially and
ethnically diverse student body and that its program is
narrowly tailored to serve that interest. Respondent-
intervenors
asserted that the LSA had a compelling inter-
est
in remedying the University’s past and current dis-
crimination
against minorities.9
The District Court began its analysis by reviewing this
Court’s decision in Bakke. See 122 F. Supp. 2d 811, 817
(ED Mich. 2001). Although the court acknowledged that
___________________
9/
The District Court considered and rejected respondent-intervenors’
arguments in a supplemental opinion and order. See 135 F. Supp. 2d
790 (ED Mich. 2001). The court explained that respondent-intervenors
“failed to present any evidence that the discrimination alleged by them,
or the continuing effects of such discrimination, was the real justifica-
tion
for the LSA’s race-conscious admissions programs.” Id., at 795.
We agree, and to the extent respondent-intervenors reassert this
justification, a justification the University has never asserted through-
out
the course of this litigation, we affirm the District Court’s disposi-
tion
of the issue.
9
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Opinion of the Court
no decision from this Court since Bakke has explicitly
accepted the diversity rationale discussed by Justice Pow-
ell,
see 122 F. Supp. 2d, at 820-821, it also concluded that
this Court had not, in the years since Bakke, ruled out
such a justification for the use of race. 122 F. Supp. 2d, at
820-821. The District Court concluded that respondents
and their amici curiae had presented “solid evidence” that
a racially and ethnically diverse student body produces
significant educational benefits such that achieving such a
student body constitutes a compelling governmental inter-
est.
See id., at 822-824.
The court next considered whether the LSA’s admis-
sions
guidelines were narrowly tailored to achieve that
interest. See id., at 824. Again relying on Justice Powell’s
opinion in Bakke, the District Court determined that the
admissions program the LSA began using in 1999 is a
narrowly tailored means of achieving the University’s
interest in the educational benefits that flow from a ra-
cially
and ethnically diverse student body. See 122
F. Supp. 2d, at 827. The court emphasized that the LSA’s
current program does not utilize rigid quotas or seek to
admit a predetermined number of minority students. See
ibid. The award of 20 points for membership in an under-
represented
minority group, in the District Court’s view,
was not the functional equivalent of a quota because
minority candidates were not insulated from review by
virtue of those points. See id., at 828. Likewise, the court
rejected the assertion that the LSA’s program operates
like the two-track system Justice Powell found objection-
able
in Bakke on the grounds that LSA applicants are not
competing for different groups of seats. See 122 F. Supp.
2d, at 828-829. The court also dismissed petitioners’
assertion that the LSA’s current system is nothing more
than a means by which to achieve racial balancing. See
id., at 831. The court explained that the LSA does not
seek to achieve a certain proportion of minority students,
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GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
let alone a proportion that represents the community. See
ibid.
The District Court found the admissions guidelines the
LSA used from 1995 through 1998 to be more problematic.
In the court’s view, the University’s prior practice of “pro-
tecting”
or “reserving” seats for underrepresented minority
applicants effectively kept nonprotected applicants from
competing for those slots. See id., at 832. This system,
the court concluded, operated as the functional equivalent
of a quota and ran afoul of Justice Powell’s opinion in
Bakke.10 See 122 F. Supp. 2d, at 832.
Based on these findings, the court granted petitioners’
motion for summary judgment with respect to the LSA’s
admissions programs in existence from 1995 through
1998, and respondents’ motion with respect to the LSA’s
admissions programs for 1999 and 2000. See id., at 833.
Accordingly, the District Court denied petitioners’ request
for injunctive relief. See id., at 814.
The District Court issued an order consistent with its
rulings and certified two questions for interlocutory appeal
to the Sixth Circuit pursuant to 28 U. S. C. §1292(b). Both
parties appealed aspects of the District Court’s rulings,
and the Court of Appeals heard the case en banc on the
same day as Grutter v. Bollinger. The Sixth Circuit later
issued an opinion in Grutter, upholding the admissions
program used by the University of Michigan Law School,
___________________
10/
The District Court determined that respondents Bollinger and
Duderstadt, who were sued in their individual capacities under Rev.
Stat. §1979, 42 U. S. C. §1983, were entitled to summary judgment
based on the doctrine of qualified immunity. See 122 F. Supp. 2d, at
833-834. Petitioners have not asked this Court to review this aspect of
the District Court’s decision. The District Court denied the Board of
Regents’ motion for summary judgment with respect to petitioners’
Title VI claim on Eleventh Amendment immunity grounds. See id., at
834-836. Respondents have not asked this Court to review this aspect
of the District Court’s decision.
11
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Opinion of the Court
and the petitioner in that case sought a writ of certiorari
from this Court. Petitioners asked this Court to grant
certiorari in this case as well, despite the fact that the
Court of Appeals had not yet rendered a judgment, so that
this Court could address the constitutionality of the con-
sideration
of race in university admissions in a wider
range of circumstances. We did so. See 537 U. S. 1044
(2002).
II
As they have throughout the course of this litigation,
petitioners contend that the University’s consideration of
race in its undergraduate admissions decisions violates §1
of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amend-
ment,
11 Title VI,12 and 42 U. S. C. §1981.13 We consider
first whether petitioners have standing to seek declaratory
and injunctive relief, and, finding that they do, we next
consider the merits of their claims.
A
Although no party has raised the issue, JUSTICE
STEVENS argues that petitioners lack Article III standing
to seek injunctive relief with respect to the University’s
use of race in undergraduate admissions. He first con-
___________________
11/
The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment ex-
plains
that “[n]o State shall … deny to any person within its jurisdic-
tion
the equal protection of the laws.”
12/
Title VI provides that “[n]o person in the United States shall, on
the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participa-
tion
in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination
under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.”
42 U. S. C. §2000d.
13/
Section 1981(a) provides that:
“All persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall have
the same right in every State and Territory to make and enforce con-
tracts,
… and to the full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings
for the security of persons and property as is enjoyed by white citizens.”
12
GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
tends that because Hamacher did not “actually appl[y] for
admission as a transfer student[,] [h]is claim of future
injury is at best ‘conjectural or hypothetical’ rather than
‘real and immediate.’ ” Post, at 5 (dissenting opinion). But
whether Hamacher “actually applied” for admission as a
transfer student is not determinative of his ability to seek
injunctive relief in this case. If Hamacher had submitted a
transfer application and been rejected, he would still need to
allege an intent to apply again in order to seek prospective
relief. If JUSTICE STEVENS means that because Hamacher
did not apply to transfer, he must never really have in-
tended
to do so, that conclusion directly conflicts with the
finding of fact entered by the District Court that Hamacher
“intends to transfer to the University of Michigan when
defendants cease the use of race as an admission prefer-
ence.”
App. 67.14
It is well established that intent may be relevant to
standing in an Equal Protection challenge. In Clements v.
Fashing, 457 U. S. 957 (1982), for example, we considered
a challenge to a provision of the Texas Constitution re-
quiring
the immediate resignation of certain state office-
holders
upon their announcement of candidacy for another
office. We concluded that the plaintiff officeholders had
Article III standing because they had alleged that they
would have announced their candidacy for other offices
were it not for the “automatic resignation” provision they
were challenging. Id., at 962; accord, Turner v. Fouche,
396 U. S. 346, 361-362, n. 23 (1970) (plaintiff who did not
own property had standing to challenge property owner-
ship
requirement for membership on school board even
though there was no evidence that plaintiff had applied
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14/
This finding is further corroborated by Hamacher’s request that the
District Court “[r]equir[e] the LSA College to offer [him] admission as a
transfer student.” App. 40.
13
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Opinion of the Court
and been rejected); Quinn v. Millsap, 491 U. S. 95, 103,
n. 8 (1989) (plaintiffs who did not own property had
standing to challenge property ownership requirement for
membership on government board even though they
lacked standing to challenge the requirement “as ap-
plied”).
Likewise, in Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associ-
ated
Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville, 508 U. S.
656 (1993), we considered whether an association chal-
lenging
an ordinance that gave preferential treatment to
certain minority-owned businesses in the award of city
contracts needed to show that one of its members would
have received a contract absent the ordinance in order to
establish standing. In finding that no such showing was
necessary, we explained that “[t]he ‘injury in fact’ in an
equal protection case of this variety is the denial of equal
treatment resulting from the imposition of the barrier, not
the ultimate inability to obtain the benefit… And in the
context of a challenge to a set-aside program, the ‘injury in
fact’ is the inability to compete on an equal footing in the
bidding process, not the loss of contract.” Id., at 666. We
concluded that in the face of such a barrier, “[t]o establish
standing, a party challenging a set-aside program like
Jacksonville’s need only demonstrate that it is able and
ready to bid on contracts and that a discriminatory policy
prevents it from doing so on an equal basis.” Ibid.
In bringing his equal protection challenge against the
University’s use of race in undergraduate admissions,
Hamacher alleged that the University had denied him the
opportunity to compete for admission on an equal basis.
When Hamacher applied to the University as a freshman
applicant, he was denied admission even though an un-
derrepresented
minority applicant with his qualifications
would have been admitted. See App. to Pet. for Cert.
115a. After being denied admission, Hamacher demon-
strated
that he was “able and ready” to apply as a transfer
student should the University cease to use race in under-
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GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
graduate admissions. He therefore has standing to seek
prospective relief with respect to the University’s contin-
ued
use of race in undergraduate admissions.
JUSTICE STEVENS raises a second argument as to
standing. He contends that the University’s use of race in
undergraduate transfer admissions differs from its use of
race in undergraduate freshman admissions, and that
therefore Hamacher lacks standing to represent absent
class members challenging the latter. Post, at 5 (dissent-
ing
opinion). As an initial matter, there is a question
whether the relevance of this variation, if any, is a matter
of Article III standing at all or whether it goes to the
propriety of class certification pursuant to Federal Rule of
Civil Procedure 23(a). The parties have not briefed the
question of standing versus adequacy, however, and we
need not resolve the question today: Regardless of whether
the requirement is deemed one of adequacy or standing, it
is clearly satisfied in this case.15
From the time petitioners filed their original complaint
through their brief on the merits in this Court, they have
consistently challenged the University’s use of race in
undergraduate admissions and its asserted justification of
promoting “diversity.” See, e.g., App. 38; Brief for Peti-
tioners
13. Consistent with this challenge, petitioners
___________________
15/
Although we do not resolve here whether such an inquiry in this
case is appropriately addressed under the rubric of standing or ade-
quacy,
we note that there is tension in our prior cases in this regard.
See, e.g., Burns, Standing and Mootness in Class Actions: A Search for
Consistency, 22 U. C. D. L. Rev. 1239, 1240-1241 (1989); General
Telephone Co. of Southwest v. Falcon, 457 U. S. 147, 149 (1982) (Mexi-
can-American plaintiff alleging that he was passed over for a promotion
because of race was not an adequate representative to “maintain a class
action on behalf of Mexican-American applicants” who were not hired
by the same employer); Blum v. Yaretsky, 457 U. S. 991 (1982) (class
representatives who had been transferred to lower levels of medical
care lacked standing to challenge transfers to higher levels of care).
15
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Opinion of the Court
requested injunctive relief prohibiting respondent “from
continuing to discriminate on the basis of race.” App. 40.
They sought to certify a class consisting of all individuals
who were not members of an underrepresented minority
group who either had applied for admission to the LSA
and been rejected or who intended to apply for admission
to the LSA, for all academic years from 1995 forward. Id.,
at 35-36. The District Court determined that the pro-
posed
class satisfied the requirements of the Federal Rules
of Civil Procedure, including the requirements of nu-
merosity,
commonality, and typicality. See Fed. Rule Civ.
Proc. 23(a); App. 70. The court further concluded that
Hamacher was an adequate representative for the class in
the pursuit of compensatory and injunctive relief for pur-
poses
of Rule 23(a)(4), see App. 61-69, and found “the
record utterly devoid of the presence of … antagonism
between the interests of … Hamacher, and the members
of the class which [he] seek[s] to represent,” id., at 61.
Finally, the District Court concluded that petitioners’
claim was appropriate for class treatment because the
University’s “ ‘practice of racial discrimination pervasively
applied on a classwide basis.’ ” Id., at 67. The court certi-
fied
the class pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure
23(b)(2), and designated Hamacher as the class represen-
tative.
App. 70.
JUSTICE STEVENS cites Blum v. Yaretsky, 457 U. S. 991
(1982), in arguing that the District Court erred. Post, at 8.
In Blum, we considered a class action suit brought by
Medicaid beneficiaries. The named representatives in
Blum challenged decisions by the State’s Medicaid Utiliza-
tion
Review Committee (URC) to transfer them to lower
levels of care without, in their view, sufficient procedural
safeguards. After a class was certified, the plaintiffs
obtained an order expanding class certification to include
challenges to URC decisions to transfer patients to higher
levels of care as well. The defendants argued that the
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GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
named representatives could not represent absent class
members challenging transfers to higher levels of care
because they had not been threatened with such transfers.
We agreed. We noted that “[n]othing in the record …
suggests that any of the individual respondents have been
either transferred to more intensive care or threatened
with such transfers.” 457 U. S., at 1001. And we found
that transfers to lower levels of care involved a number of
fundamentally different concerns than did transfers to
higher ones. Id., at 1001-1002 (noting, for example, that
transfers to lower levels of care implicated beneficiaries’
property interests given the concomitant decrease in
Medicaid benefits, while transfers to higher levels of care
did not).
In the present case, the University’s use of race in un-
dergraduate
transfer admissions does not implicate a
significantly different set of concerns than does its use of
race in undergraduate freshman admissions. Respondents
challenged Hamacher’s standing at the certification stage,
but never did so on the grounds that the University’s use
of race in undergraduate transfer admissions involves a
different set of concerns than does its use of race in fresh-
man
admissions. Respondents’ failure to allege any such
difference is simply consistent with the fact that no such
difference exists. Each year the OUA produces a docu-
ment
entitled “COLLEGE OF LITERATURE SCIENCE
AND THE ARTS GUIDELINES FOR ALL TERMS,”
which sets forth guidelines for all individuals seeking
admission to the LSA, including freshman applicants,
transfer applicants, international student applicants, and
the like. See, e.g., 2 App. in No. 01-1333 etc. (CA6),
pp. 507-542. The guidelines used to evaluate transfer
applicants specifically cross-reference factors and qualifi-
cations
considered in assessing freshman applicants. In
fact, the criteria used to determine whether a transfer
applicant will contribute to the University’s stated goal of
17
Cite as: 539 U. S. ____ (2003)
Opinion of the Court
diversity are identical to that used to evaluate freshman
applicants. For example, in 1997, when the class was
certified and the District Court found that Hamacher had
standing to represent the class, the transfer guidelines
contained a separate section entitled “CONTRIBUTION
TO A DIVERSE STUDENT BODY.” 2 id., at 531. This
section explained that any transfer applicant who could
“contribut[e] to a diverse student body” should “generally
be admitted” even with substantially lower qualifications
than those required of other transfer applicants. Ibid.
(emphasis added). To determine whether a transfer appli-
cant
was capable of “contribut[ing] to a diverse student
body,” admissions counselors were instructed to determine
whether that transfer applicant met the “criteria as de-
fined
in Section IV of the ‘U’ category of [the] SCUGA”
factors used to assess freshman applicants. Ibid. Section
IV of the “U” category, entitled “Contribution to a Diverse
Class,” explained that “[t]he University is committed to a
rich educational experience for its students. A diverse, as
opposed to a homogenous, student population enhances
the educational experience for all students. To insure a
diverse class, significant weight will be given in the ad-
missions
process to indicators of students contribution to a
diverse class.” 1 id., at 432. These indicators, used in
evaluating freshman and transfer applicants alike, list
being a member of an underrepresented minority group as
establishing an applicant’s contribution to diversity. See 3
id., at 1133-1134, 1153-1154. Indeed, the only difference
between the University’s use of race in considering fresh-
man
and transfer applicants is that all underrepresented
minority freshman applicants receive 20 points and “vir-
tually”
all who are minimally qualified are admitted, while
“generally” all minimally qualified minority transfer
applicants are admitted outright. While this difference
might be relevant to a narrow tailoring analysis, it clearly
has no effect on petitioners’ standing to challenge the
17
GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
University’s use of race in undergraduate admissions and
its assertion that diversity is a compelling state interest
that justifies its consideration of the race of its under-
graduate
applicants.16
Particularly instructive here is our statement in General
Telephone Co. of Southwest v. Falcon, 457 U. S. 147
(1982), that “[i]f [defendant-employer] used a biased test-
ing
procedure to evaluate both applicants for employment
and incumbent employees, a class action on behalf of every
applicant or employee who might have been prejudiced by
the test clearly would satisfy the … requirements of Rule
23(a).” Id., at 159, n. 15 (emphasis added). Here, the
District Court found that the sole rationale the University
had provided for any of its race-based preferences in un-
dergraduate
admissions was the interest in “the educa-
tional
benefits that result from having a diverse student
body.” App. to Pet. for Cert. 8a. And petitioners argue
that an interest in “diversity” is not a compelling state
interest that is ever capable of justifying the use of race in
___________________
16/
Because the University’s guidelines concededly use race in evalu-
ating
both freshman and transfer applications, and because petitioners
have challenged any use of race by the University in undergraduate
admissions, the transfer admissions policy is very much before this
Court. Although petitioners did not raise a narrow tailoring challenge
to the transfer policy, as counsel for petitioners repeatedly explained,
the transfer policy is before this Court in that petitioners challenged
any use of race by the University to promote diversity, including
through the transfer policy. See Tr. of Oral Arg. 4 (“[T]he [transfer]
policy is essentially the same with respect to the consideration of race”);
id., at 5 (“The transfer policy considers race”); id., at 6 (same); id., at 7
(“[T]he transfer policy and the [freshman] admissions policy are fun-
damentally
the same in the respect that they both consider race in the
admissions process in a way that is discriminatory”); id., at 7-8 (“[T]he
University considers race for a purpose to achieve a diversity that we
believe is not compelling, and if that is struck down as a rationale, then
the [result] would be [the] same with respect to the transfer policy as
with respect to the [freshman] admissions policy, Your Honor”).
19
Cite as: 539 U. S. ____ (2003)
Opinion of the Court
undergraduate admissions. See, e.g., Brief for Petitioners
11-13. In sum, the same set of concerns is implicated by
the University’s use of race in evaluating all undergradu-
ate
admissions applications under the guidelines.17 We
therefore agree with the District Court’s carefully consid-
ered
decision to certify this class-action challenge to the
University’s consideration of race in undergraduate ad-
missions.
See App. 67 (“ ‘It is a singular policy … applied
on a classwide basis’ ”); cf. Coopers &Lybrand v. Livesay,
437 U. S. 463, 469 (1978) (“[T]he class determination gener-
ally
involves considerations that are enmeshed in the fac-
tual
and legal issues comprising the plaintiff’s cause of
action” (internal quotation marks omitted)). Indeed, class
action treatment was particularly important in this case
because “the claims of the individual students run the risk
of becoming moot” and the “[t]he class action vehicle …
provides a mechanism for ensuring that a justiciable claim
is before the Court.” App. 69. Thus, we think it clear that
Hamacher’s personal stake, in view of both his past injury
and the potential injury he faced at the time of certification,
___________________
17/
Indeed, as the litigation history of this case demonstrates, “the
class-action device save[d] the resources of both the courts and the
parties by permitting an issue potentially affecting every [class mem-
ber]
to be litigated in an economical fashion.” Califano v. Yamasaki, 442
U. S. 682, 701 (1979). This case was therefore quite unlike General
Telephone Co. of Southwest v. Falcon, 457 U. S. 147 (1982), in which we
found that the named representative, who had been passed over for a
promotion, was not an adequate representative for absent class members
who were never hired in the first instance. As we explained, the plaintiff’s
“evidentiary approaches to the individual and class claims were entirely
different. He attempted to sustain his individual claim by proving inten-
tional
discrimination. He tried to prove the class claims through statisti-
cal
evidence of disparate impact… It is clear that the maintenance of
respondent’s action as a class action did not advance ‘the efficiency and
economy of litigation which is a principal purpose of the procedure.’ ” Id.,
at 159 (quoting American Pipe &Constr. Co. v. Utah, 414 U. S. 538, 553
(1974)).
20
GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
demonstrates that he may maintain this class-action chal-
lenge
to the University’s use of race in undergraduate
admissions.
B
Petitioners argue, first and foremost, that the Univer-
sity’s
use of race in undergraduate admissions violates the
Fourteenth Amendment. Specifically, they contend that
this Court has only sanctioned the use of racial classifica-
tions
to remedy identified discrimination, a justification on
which respondents have never relied. Brief for Petitioners
15-16. Petitioners further argue that “diversity as a basis
for employing racial preferences is simply too open-ended,
ill-defined, and indefinite to constitute a compelling inter-
est
capable of supporting narrowly-tailored means.” Id.,
at 17-18, 40-41. But for the reasons set forth today in
Grutter v. Bollinger, post, at 15-21, the Court has rejected
these arguments of petitioners.
Petitioners alternatively argue that even if the Univer-
sity’s
interest in diversity can constitute a compelling
state interest, the District Court erroneously concluded
that the University’s use of race in its current freshman
admissions policy is narrowly tailored to achieve such an
interest. Petitioners argue that the guidelines the Univer-
sity
began using in 1999 do not “remotely resemble the
kind of consideration of race and ethnicity that Justice
Powell endorsed in Bakke.” Brief for Petitioners 18.
Respondents reply that the University’s current admis-
sions
program is narrowly tailored and avoids the prob-
lems
of the Medical School of the University of California
at Davis program (U. C. Davis) rejected by Justice Pow-
ell.
18 They claim that their program “hews closely” to both
___________________
18/
U. C. Davis set aside 16 of the 100 seats available in its first year
medical school program for “economically and/or educationally disad-
vantaged”
applicants who were also members of designated “minority
21
Cite as: 539 U. S. ____ (2003)
Opinion of the Court
the admissions program described by Justice Powell as
well as the Harvard College admissions program that he
endorsed. Brief for Respondents 32. Specifically, respon-
dents
contend that the LSA’s policy provides the individu-
alized
consideration that “Justice Powell considered a
hallmark of a constitutionally appropriate admissions
program.” Id., at 35. For the reasons set out below, we do
not agree.
It is by now well established that “all racial classifica-
tions
reviewable under the Equal Protection Clause must
be strictly scrutinized.” Adarand Constructors, Inc. v.
Peña, 515 U. S. 200, 224 (1995). This “‘standard of review
… is not dependent on the race of those burdened or bene-
fited
by a particular classification.’” Ibid. (quoting Rich-
mond
v. J. A. Croson Co., 488 U. S. 469, 494 (1989) (plural-
ity
opinion)). Thus, “any person, of whatever race, has the
right to demand that any governmental actor subject to the
Constitution justify any racial classification subjecting that
person to unequal treatment under the strictest of judicial
scrutiny.” Adarand, 515 U. S., at 224.
To withstand our strict scrutiny analysis, respondents
must demonstrate that the University’s use of race in its
___________________
groups” as defined by the university. “To the extent that there existed
a pool of at least minimally qualified minority applicants to fill the 16
special admissions seats, white applicants could compete only for 84
seats in the entering class, rather than the 100 open to minority appli-
cants.”
Regents of Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U. S. 265, 274, 289 (1978)
(principal opinion). Justice Powell found that the program employed an
impermissible two-track system that “disregard[ed] … individual
rights as guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.” Id., at 315. He
reached this conclusion even though the university argued that “the
reservation of a specified number of seats in each class for individuals
from the preferred ethnic groups” was “the only effective means of
serving the interest of diversity.” Ibid. Justice Powell concluded that
such arguments misunderstood the very nature of the diversity he
found to be compelling. See ibid.
22
GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
current admission program employs “narrowly tailored
measures that further compelling governmental interests.”
Id., at 227. Because “[r]acial classifications are simply too
pernicious to permit any but the most exact connection
between justification and classification,” Fullilove v.
Klutznick, 448 U. S. 448, 537 (1980) (STEVENS, J., dis-
senting),
our review of whether such requirements have
been met must entail “ ‘a most searching examination.’ ”
Adarand, supra, at 223 (quoting Wygant v. Jackson Bd. of
Ed., 476 U. S. 267, 273 (1986) (plurality opinion of Powell,
J.)). We find that the University’s policy, which automati-
cally
distributes 20 points, or one-fifth of the points
needed to guarantee admission, to every single “underrep-
resented
minority” applicant solely because of race, is not
narrowly tailored to achieve the interest in educational
diversity that respondents claim justifies their program.
In Bakke, Justice Powell reiterated that “[p]referring
members of any one group for no reason other than race or
ethnic origin is discrimination for its own sake.” 438 U. S.,
at 307. He then explained, however, that in his view it
would be permissible for a university to employ an admis-
sions
program in which “race or ethnic background may be
deemed a ‘plus’ in a particular applicant’s file.” Id., at
317. He explained that such a program might allow for
“[t]he file of a particular black applicant [to] be examined
for his potential contribution to diversity without the
factor of race being decisive when compared, for example,
with that of an applicant identified as an Italian-American
if the latter is thought to exhibit qualities more likely to
promote beneficial educational pluralism.” Ibid. Such a
system, in Justice Powell’s view, would be “flexible enough
to consider all pertinent elements of diversity in light of
the particular qualifications of each applicant.” Ibid.
Justice Powell’s opinion in Bakke emphasized the im-
portance
of considering each particular applicant as an
individual, assessing all of the qualities that individual
23
Cite as: 539 U. S. ____ (2003)
Opinion of the Court
possesses, and in turn, evaluating that individual’s ability
to contribute to the unique setting of higher education.
The admissions program Justice Powell described, how-
ever,
did not contemplate that any single characteristic
automatically ensured a specific and identifiable contribu-
tion
to a university’s diversity. See id., at 315. See also
Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC, 497 U. S. 547, 618 (1990)
(O’CONNOR, J., dissenting) (concluding that the FCC’s
policy, which “embodie[d] the related notions that a par-
ticular
applicant, by virtue of race or ethnicity alone, is
more valued than other applicants because [the applicant
is] ‘likely to provide [a] distinct perspective,’ “impermissi-
bly
value[d] individuals” based on a presumption that
“persons think in a manner associated with their race”).
Instead, under the approach Justice Powell described,
each characteristic of a particular applicant was to be
considered in assessing the applicant’s entire application.
The current LSA policy does not provide such individu-
alized
consideration. The LSA’s policy automatically
distributes 20 points to every single applicant from an
“underrepresented minority” group, as defined by the
University. The only consideration that accompanies this
distribution of points is a factual review of an application
to determine whether an individual is a member of one of
these minority groups. Moreover, unlike Justice Powell’s
example, where the race of a “particular black applicant”
could be considered without being decisive, see Bakke, 438
U. S., at 317, the LSA’s automatic distribution of 20 points
has the effect of making “the factor of race … decisive” for
virtually every minimally qualified underrepresented
minority applicant. Ibid.19
___________________
19/
JUSTICE SOUTER recognizes that the LSA’s use of race is decisive in
practice, but he attempts to avoid that fact through unsupported
speculation about the self-selection of minorities in the applicant pool.
See Post, at 6 (dissenting opinion).
24
GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
Also instructive in our consideration of the LSA’s system
is the example provided in the description of the Harvard
College Admissions Program, which Justice Powell both
discussed in, and attached to, his opinion in Bakke. The
example was included to “illustrate the kind of signifi-
cance
attached to race” under the Harvard College pro-
gram.
Id., at 324. It provided as follows:
“The Admissions Committee, with only a few places
left to fill, might find itself forced to choose between A,
the child of a successful black physician in an aca-
demic
community with promise of superior academic
performance, and B, a black who grew up in an inner-
city
ghetto of semi-literate parents whose academic
achievement was lower but who had demonstrated
energy and leadership as well as an apparently abid-
ing
interest in black power. If a good number of black
students much like A but few like B had already been
admitted, the Committee might prefer B; and vice
versa. If C, a white student with extraordinary artis-
tic
talent, were also seeking one of the remaining
places, his unique quality might give him an edge over
both A and B. Thus, the critical criteria are often in-
dividual
qualities or experience not dependent upon
race but sometimes associated with it.” Ibid. (emphasis
added).
This example further demonstrates the problematic na-
ture
of the LSA’s admissions system. Even if student C’s
“extraordinary artistic talent” rivaled that of Monet or
Picasso, the applicant would receive, at most, five points
under the LSA’s system. See App. 234-235. At the same
time, every single underrepresented minority applicant,
including students A and B, would automatically receive
20 points for submitting an application. Clearly, the
LSA’s system does not offer applicants the individualized
selection process described in Harvard’s example. Instead
25
Cite as: 539 U. S. ____ (2003)
Opinion of the Court
of considering how the differing backgrounds, experiences,
and characteristics of students A, B, and C might benefit
the University, admissions counselors reviewing LSA
applications would simply award both A and B 20 points
because their applications indicate that they are African-
American, and student C would receive up to 5 points for
his “extraordinary talent.”20
Respondents emphasize the fact that the LSA has cre-
ated
the possibility of an applicant’s file being flagged for
individualized consideration by the ARC. We think that
the flagging program only emphasizes the flaws of the
University’s system as a whole when compared to that
described by Justice Powell. Again, students A, B, and C
illustrate the point. First, student A would never be
flagged. This is because, as the University has conceded,
the effect of automatically awarding 20 points is that
virtually every qualified underrepresented minority appli-
cant
is admitted. Student A, an applicant “with promise of
superior academic performance,” would certainly fit this
description. Thus, the result of the automatic distribution
of 20 points is that the University would never consider
student A’s individual background, experiences, and char-
acteristics
to assess his individual “potential contribution
to diversity,” Bakke, supra, at 317. Instead, every appli-
cant
like student A would simply be admitted.
It is possible that students B and C would be flagged
and considered as individuals. This assumes that student
B was not already admitted because of the automatic 20-
point distribution, and that student C could muster at
least 70 additional points. But the fact that the “review
___________________
20/
JUSTICE SOUTER is therefore wrong when he contends that “appli-
cants
to the undergraduate college are [not] denied individualized
consideration.” Post, at 6. As JUSTICE O’CONNOR explains in her
concurrence, the LSA’s program “ensures that the diversity contribu-
tions
of applicants cannot be individually assessed.” Post, at 4.
26
GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
committee can look at the applications individually and
ignore the points,” once an application is flagged, Tr. of
Oral Arg. 42, is of little comfort under our strict scrutiny
analysis. The record does not reveal precisely how many
applications are flagged for this individualized considera-
tion,
but it is undisputed that such consideration is the
exception and not the rule in the operation of the LSA’s
admissions program. See App. to Pet. for Cert. 117a (“The
ARC reviews only a portion of all of the applications. The
bulk of admissions decisions are executed based on selec-
tion
index score parameters set by the EWG”).21 Addition-
ally,
this individualized review is only provided after
admissions counselors automatically distribute the Uni-
versity’s
version of a “plus” that makes race a decisive
factor for virtually every minimally qualified underrepre-
sented
minority applicant.
Respondents contend that “[t]he volume of applications
and the presentation of applicant information make it
impractical for [LSA] to use the … admissions system”
upheld by the Court today in Grutter. Brief for Respon-
dents
6, n. 8. But the fact that the implementation of a
program capable of providing individualized consideration
___________________
21/
JUSTICE SOUTER is mistaken in his assertion that the Court “take[s]
it upon itself to apply a newly formulated legal standard to an undevel-
oped
record.” Post, at 7, n. 3. He ignores the fact that the respondents
have told us all that is necessary to decide this case. As explained
above, respondents concede that only a portion of the applications are
reviewed by the ARC and that the “bulk of admissions decisions” are
based on the point system. It should be readily apparent that the
availability of this review, which comes after the automatic distribution
of points, is far more limited than the individualized review given to the
“large middle group of applicants” discussed by Justice Powell and
described by the Harvard plan in Bakke. 438 U. S., at 316 (internal
quotation marks omitted).
27
Cite as: 539 U. S. ____ (2003)
Opinion of the Court
might present administrative challenges does not render
constitutional an otherwise problematic system. See J. A.
Croson Co., 488 U. S., at 508 (citing Frontiero v.
Richardson, 411 U. S. 677, 690 (1973) (plurality opinion of
Brennan, J.) (rejecting “ ‘administrative convenience’ ” as a
determinant of constitutionality in the face of a suspect
classification)). Nothing in Justice Powell’s opinion in
Bakke signaled that a university may employ whatever
means it desires to achieve the stated goal of diversity
without regard to the limits imposed by our strict scrutiny
analysis.
We conclude, therefore, that because the University’s
use of race in its current freshman admissions policy is not
narrowly tailored to achieve respondents’ asserted com-
pelling
interest in diversity, the admissions policy violates
the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amend-
ment.
22 We further find that the admissions policy also
violates Title VI and 42 U. S. C. § 1981.23 Accordingly, we
___________________
22/
JUSTICE GINSBURG in her dissent observes that “[o]ne can reasona-
bly
anticipate … that colleges and universities will seek to maintain
their minority enrollment … whether or not they can do so in full
candor through adoption of affirmative action plans of the kind here at
issue.” Post, at 7-8. She goes on to say that “[i]f honesty is the best
policy, surely Michigan’s accurately described, fully disclosed College
affirmative action program is preferable to achieving similar numbers
through winks, nods, and disguises.” Post, at 8. These observations are
remarkable for two reasons. First, they suggest that universities—to
whose academic judgment we are told in Grutter v. Bollinger, post, at
16, we should defer—will pursue their affirmative-action programs
whether or not they violate the United States Constitution. Second,
they recommend that these violations should be dealt with, not by
requiring the universities to obey the Constitution, but by changing the
Constitution so that it conforms to the conduct of the universities.
23/
We have explained that discrimination that violates the Equal
Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment committed by an
institution that accepts federal funds also constitutes a violation of
Title VI. See Alexander v. Sandoval, 532 U. S. 275, 281 (2001); United
States v. Fordice, 505 U. S. 717, 732, n. 7 (1992); Alexander v. Choate,
28
GRATZ v. BOLLINGER
Opinion of the Court
reverse that portion of the District Court’s decision
granting respondents summary judgment with respect to
liability and remand the case for proceedings consistent
with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
___________________
U. S. 287, 293 (1985). Likewise, with respect to §1981, we have
explained that the provision was “meant, by its broad terms, to pro-
scribe
discrimination in the making or enforcement of contracts
against, or in favor of, any race.” McDonald v. Santa Fe Trail Transp.
Co., 427 U. S. 273, 295-296 (1976). Furthermore, we have explained
that a contract for educational services is a “contract” for purposes of
§1981. See Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U. S. 160, 172 (1976). Finally,
purposeful discrimination that violates the Equal Protection Clause of
the Fourteenth Amendment will also violate §1981. See General
Building Contractors Assn., Inc. v. Pennsylvania, 458 U. S. 375, 389-
390 (1982).
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